Microorganisms, a large group of organisms including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and some small protozoa, are small and closely related to human life. Widely involved in health, medicine, industry and agriculture, environmental protection and many other fields. In the textbooks in mainland China, microorganisms are classified into the following eight categories: bacteria, viruses, fungi, actinomycetes, rickettsia, mycoplasma, chlamydia, and spirochetes.
Feature introduction
Individuals are small, generally <0.1mm.
Simple structure, single cell, simple multicellular, non-cellular. Low evolutionary status, mostly relying on organic matter to sustain life
Basic classification
Prokaryotic class: three bacteria, three bodies.
Three bacteria: bacteria, cyanobacteria, actinomycetes three: mycoplasma, chlamydia, rickettsia.
Eukaryotes: fungi, protozoa, microalgae.
Non-cellular: virus, sub-virus (viral, pseudovirus, prion).
Group type
Pronuclear: bacteria, actinomycetes, spirochetes, mycoplasma, rickettsia, chlamydia.
Eukaryotic: fungi, algae (partial), protozoa (partial).
Non-cellular: viruses and sub-viruses.
In general, in the textbooks of mainland China, microorganisms are divided into the following eight categories:
Bacteria, viruses, fungi, actinomycetes (a type of bacteria in a broad sense), rickettsia, mycoplasma, chlamydia, spirochetes. [1]
bacterial
(1) Definition: A class of cells with short and short cells, simple structure, tough cell wall, and multi-divisional reproduction and aquatic prokaryotes.
(2) Distribution: warm, humid and organic-rich areas.
(3) Structure: It is mainly a single-cell prokaryote with a spherical shape, a rod shape, and a spiral shape.
Basic structure: cell membrane cell wall cytoplasmic nucleoplasm.
Special structure: capsule, flagella, pili, spore.
(4) Reproduction: It is mainly propagated in a two-split manner.
(5) Colonies: Individual bacteria are invisible to the naked eye. When a single or a small number of bacteria multiply on a solid medium, a macroscopic cell population with a certain morphological structure is formed.
Colonies are an important basis for strain identification. The size, shape, and color of the different kinds of bacterial colonies are different.
Actinomycetes
(1) Definition: A class of prokaryotes with predominantly mycelial growth and terrestrial reproduction
(2) Distribution: The soil with low water content and rich organic matter is slightly alkaline soil.
(3) Morphological structure: mainly composed of hyphae, including intracellular hyphae and aerial hyphae (some aerial hyphae can mature into spore filaments and produce spores).
(4) Reproduction: asexual reproduction by forming asexual spores
Asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.
(5) Colony: on solid medium: dry, opaque, dense velvety surface, color dry powder. [2]
virus
(1) Definition: A type of "non-cellular organism" consisting of a few components, such as nucleic acids and proteins, but its survival must depend on living cells.
(2) Structure: [font class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: -webkit-monospace; font-size: 13px; line-height: normal; white-space: pre-wrap; "] Protein capsid and nucleic acid (nucleic acid is DNA or RNA) [/ font].
(3) Size: A vaccinia virus with a diameter of about 100 nm, a maximum virus diameter of 200 nm, and a polio virus with a minimum virus diameter of 28 nm.
(4) Proliferation: the life of the virus
A notable feature is parasitic. A virus can only live in a particular living cell. And use the environment and raw materials in the host cells to quickly replicate and increase the value. It is crystalline in the non-parasitic state and cannot perform independent metabolic activities. Take phage as an example: adsorption → DNA injection → replication, synthesis → assembly → release.
Chemical composition of microorganisms
C, H, O, N, P, S and other elements.
Microbial nutrients
1 water and inorganic salts
2 Carbon source: Any nutrient that provides microorganisms with the carbon needed for growth and reproduction.
Source: Organic substances in the surrounding environment, commonly used are sugars, oils, organic acids and organic acid esters and small molecular alcohols.
Role: The role of carbon sources in the growth and metabolism of microorganisms is mainly to provide carbon scaffolds for cells, provide the energy needed for cell life activities, and provide carbon scaffolds for synthetic products.
3 Nitrogen source: Any nutrient that provides the necessary nitrogen for microorganisms.
Source: Organic and inorganic nitrogenous substances in the surrounding environment.
Role: mainly used to synthesize proteins, nucleic acids and nitrogen-containing metabolites.
4 Energy: A nutrient or radiant energy that provides the initial source of energy for microbial life activities.
5 growth factors: micro-organisms indispensable for microbial growth [1]
Pathogenic microorganism
Microorganisms that cause disease in humans and animals are called pathogenic microorganisms. There are eight categories:
1. Fungus: causes skin disease. Infected in deep tissues.
2 Actinomycetes: skin, wound infection.
3 spiral: skin disease, blood infections such as syphilis, leptospirosis.
4 bacteria: skin disease suppuration, upper respiratory tract infection, urinary tract infection, food poisoning, blood loss, acute infectious diseases.
5 rickettsia: typhus and so on.
6 Chlamydia: trachoma, genitourinary tract infection.
7 viruses: hepatitis, Japanese encephalitis, measles, AIDS, etc.
8 original bodies: pneumonia, urinary tract infection.
There are tens of thousands of microorganisms in the biological world, most of which are beneficial to humans, and only a small part can cause disease. Some microorganisms usually do not cause disease, and in certain circumstances can cause infections called conditional pathogens. Can cause food deterioration and corruption, just because they break down natural objects, can complete the material circulation of nature
Five commonalities
Small size and large area;
More absorption, faster conversion;
Growing vigorously and breeding fast;
Adaptable and easy to mutate;
Wide distribution and variety.
biggest smallest
The largest known microorganism in the world: in 1985, Fishelson, Montgomery and Myrberg discovered a microbe in the small intestine of a tropical fish (called surgeonfish) growing in the Red Sea, the largest microorganism found in the world at the time. . It looks like a cigar, with a length of about 200-500μm, a length of up to 600μm, and a volume of about 1 million times that of E. coli. This microorganism can be directly perceived by the naked eye without the need of a microscope. The largest microorganism is currently in 1997. Heidi Schulz is a globular bacterium found in marine sedimentary soil on the coast of Namibia, with a diameter of about 100-750 μm. This is 100 times larger than the microorganisms mentioned earlier.
The smallest microorganism known in the world: Mycoplasma, which was also translated as "mycoplasma" in the past, is a type of single-celled microorganism between bacteria and viruses. The smallest microorganism known on earth to live independently, about 100 nanometers in size. Mycoplasma is generally a parasite, the most famous of which is M. pneumonia, which can cause serious damage to the respiratory organs of mammals, especially cattle.
Biological action
One of the most important effects of microbes on humans is the prevalence of infectious diseases. 50% of human diseases are caused by viruses. According to the World Health Organization, the incidence and mortality of infectious diseases rank first in all diseases. The history of microbes leading to human disease, the history of human struggles with them. Human progress has been made in the prevention and treatment of diseases, but new and recurring microbial infections continue to occur, and a large number of viral diseases have been lacking in effective therapeutic drugs. The pathogenesis of some diseases is not clear. The abuse of a large number of broad-spectrum antibiotics has created a strong selection pressure, which has caused many strains to mutate, leading to drug resistance and new threats to human health. Some segments of the virus can be mutated by recombination or reassortment, the most typical example being the influenza virus. Every influenza pandemic influenza virus mutates with the previous infection-causing strain. This rapid mutation poses a major obstacle to the design and treatment of vaccines. The emergence of drug-resistant tuberculosis has caused the already near-controlled tuberculosis infection to rise around the world.
Microorganisms are in a variety of poses, and some are spoiled, causing undesirable changes in food odors and tissue structures. Of course some microbes are beneficial, they can be used to produce cheese, bread, kimchi, beer and wine. Microorganisms are very small and must be viewed approximately 1000 times through a microscope. For example, medium-sized bacteria, 1000 stacked together are only as large as a period. Imagine a drop of milk, about 50 million bacteria per milliliter of corrupted milk, or about 5 billion bacteria per quart of milk. That is, a drop of milk may contain 5 billion bacteria.
Microorganisms can cause disease and can cause mold, decay, etc. in food, cloth, leather, etc., but microbes also have a beneficial side. It was the first time that Fleming discovered penicillin from the inhibition of the growth of other bacteria by Penicillium, which is an epoch-making discovery for the medical community. Later, a large number of antibiotics were screened out from metabolites such as actinomycetes. The use of antibiotics saved countless lives in the Second World War. Some microorganisms are widely used in industrial fermentation to produce ethanol, food and various enzyme preparations; some microorganisms can degrade plastics, treat waste water, etc., and the potential of renewable resources is extremely high, called environmental microbes; Microorganisms that survive in extreme environments, such as high temperature, low temperature, high salt, high alkali, and high radiation, can still survive in an environment where ordinary living organisms cannot survive. It seems that we have found a lot of microorganisms, but in fact, due to the limitations of technical means such as culture methods, the microorganisms discovered by humans today only account for a small part of the microorganisms present in nature.
The mechanism of interaction between microorganisms is also quite mysterious. For example, there are a large number of bacteria in the intestines of healthy people, which are called normal flora, and contain hundreds of kinds of bacteria. In the intestinal environment these bacteria are interdependent and reciprocally symbiotic. The decomposition and absorption of food, toxic substances and even drugs, the role of the flora in these processes, and the mechanism of interaction between bacteria are still unclear. Once the flora is out of tune, it can cause diarrhea.
As medical research enters the molecular level, people are becoming more familiar with terminology such as genes and genetic materials. It is recognized that genetic information determines the life characteristics of an organism, including external forms and life activities, and the genome of the organism is the carrier of these genetic information. Therefore, clarifying the genetic information carried by the genome of an organism will greatly help reveal the origin and mystery of life. Studying the variation, virulence and pathogenicity of microbial pathogens at the molecular level is a revolution for traditional microbiology.
Genomics research on microbes at the molecular level provides new clues and ideas for exploring the mysteries of microbial individuals and the role of groups. In order to fully develop microbial (especially bacterial) resources, the Microbial Genome Research Program (MGP) was launched in the United States in 1994. By studying the complete genomic information and developing and utilizing important functional genes of microorganisms, we can not only deepen the understanding of the pathogenic mechanism, important metabolism and regulation mechanism of microorganisms, but also develop a series of genes closely related to our lives. Engineering products, including vaccines for vaccination, new drugs for treatment, diagnostic reagents, and various enzyme preparations for industrial and agricultural production. Through the transformation of genetic engineering methods, the construction of new strains and the transformation of traditional strains are promoted, and the advent of the microbial industry era is fully promoted.
Industrial microorganisms are involved in various industries such as food, pharmaceutical, metallurgy, mining, petroleum, leather, and light chemicals. Production of antibiotics, butanol, vitamin C and some flavored foods through microbial fermentation; some special microbial enzymes are involved in leather hair removal, metallurgy, oil mining and other production processes, and even directly as additives for washing powder; Metabolites of microorganisms can be widely used in agricultural production as natural microbial insecticides. Through a genome study of Bacillus subtilis, a series of genes related to the production of antibiotics and important industrial enzymes were discovered. Lactobacillus is an important micro-ecological regulator involved in the food fermentation process, and its genomics research will help to find key functional genes, and then transform the strain to make it more suitable for industrial production. The genomic study of Gluconobacter oxydans, a key strain in the production process of domestic vitamin C two-step fermentation, will find important metabolic functional genes related to vitamin C production on the premise of genome sequencing, and genetic engineering to realize new engineering. The construction of the strain simplifies the production steps, reduces the production cost, and then achieves a substantial increase in economic benefits. Genomic research on industrial microorganisms, constantly discovering new special enzyme genes and functional genes related to important metabolic processes and metabolites, and applying them to production and transformation of traditional industries and processes, and promoting the rapid development of modern biotechnology. .
The economic crop citrus pathogen is the first in the world to publish a full sequence of phytopathogenic microorganisms. There are also a number of agricultural microorganisms that are important in taxonomy, physiology and economic value, such as: Erwinia carotovora, Pseudomonas phytophthora, and studies on Xanthomonas that are being carried out in China. The complete sequence of the plant nitrogen-fixing rhizobium has just been determined. A more mature approach to screening therapeutic drugs from the genomics information of human pathogenic microorganisms can be tentatively applied to plant pathogens. Especially like citrus pathogens, which require insect vectors to complete the life cycle, except that pesticides can block their life cycle, only virulence-related factors can be found through genetic research, and resistance targets can be found for development. More effective control measures. The analysis of the genetic information of nitrogen-fixing bacteria is also of great significance for the development and utilization of key nitrogen-fixing genes to improve the yield and quality of crops.
Microorganisms that can grow in extreme environments are called extreme microorganisms, also known as extreme bacteria. The extremely polar bacteria have strong adaptability to extreme environments. The research of extreme microbial genomes helps to study the adaptability of microorganisms under extreme conditions at the molecular level and deepen the understanding of the nature of life.
There is a kind of bacterium, it can violent
It can survive when exposed to thousands of times of intensity, and a human dose will die. The chromosome of the bacterium is shattered into hundreds of fragments after receiving millions of rad a rays, but it can be recovered in one day. Studying its DNA repair mechanism is very meaningful for the development of environmental bio-treatment in radiation-contaminated areas. The development and utilization of the extreme characteristics of the extreme bacteria can break through some limitations in the current biotechnology field, and establish new technical means to revolutionize the biotechnology capabilities in the fields of environment, energy, agriculture, health and light chemicals. Extreme enzymes from extreme microorganisms, which can function in extreme environments, will greatly expand the application space of enzymes, and are the basis for establishing high-efficiency, low-cost biotechnology processing processes, such as TagDNA polymerase and detergent in PCR technology. Alkaline enzymes and the like are representative. The research and application of extreme microorganisms will be an important way to obtain the advantages of modern biotechnology, and its application potential in new enzymes, new drug development and environmental remediation is enormous. [3]
Fold edit this paragraph bio contribution
A number of fundamental discoveries and theories of modern biology have been made in the process of studying microorganisms or using microorganisms as experimental materials and tools. These theories include: Proving that DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the carrier of genetic information (three classical experiments: transformation experiments of pneumococci, phage experiments, and recombinant experiments of plant viruses). The semi-reserved replication of DNA (each sub-chain of the double helix is ​​a replica template). Interpretation of genetic codons (64 codons each corresponding to 20 amino acids and termination signals). Transcriptional regulation of genes (operon, promoter, operator, repressor, concept and regulation of activator). Translational terminator of messenger RNA, etc... Today, many common, general-purpose biological research techniques rely on microbes, such as the expression of molecularly cloned recombinant proteins in bacteria or yeast. Many medical techniques also rely on microbes, such as viral-based gene therapy.
Genetic factor
The Agricultural Microbial Genomics Study recognizes the new strategies for the development of disease-causing mechanisms to control diseases. According to statistics, the annual reduction of crops caused by diseases in the world can be as high as 20%, of which the bacterial diseases of plants are the most serious. In addition to cultivating genetically resistant varieties and enhancing horticultural management, there appears to be no better disease control strategy. Therefore, it is urgent to actively carry out the genomic research of some phytopathogenic microorganisms, recognize the pathogenic mechanism and develop new strategies to control diseases. The economic crop citrus pathogen is the first in the world to publish a full sequence of phytopathogenic microorganisms. There are also a number of agricultural microorganisms that are important in taxonomy, physiology and economic value, such as: Erwinia carotovora, Phytopathogenic Pseudomonas, and the ongoing research on Xanthomonas in China.
Microorganisms can break down substances such as cellulose and promote the recycling of resources. The genomic research carried out on these microorganisms can be selectively used under the premise of understanding the genetic background of special metabolic processes, such as finding key genes for degradation of different pollutants, combining them in a certain strain, and constructing high-efficiency energy. The genetically engineered strains, which are multi-purpose, can simultaneously degrade different environmental pollutants and greatly exert their potential to improve the environment and eliminate pollution. The American Genomics Institute combined with the biochip method to study the expression profiles of microorganisms under special conditions, in order to find the key genes for the degradation of organic matter, and set targets for development and utilization. Extreme environmental microbial genome research has great potential for understanding the nature of life. Microorganisms that can grow in extreme environments are called extreme microorganisms, also known as extreme bacteria. The extremely polar bacteria have strong adaptability to extreme environments. The research of extreme microbial genomes helps to study the adaptability of microorganisms under extreme conditions at the molecular level and deepen the understanding of the nature of life. There is a bacterium that can survive when exposed to thousands of times the intensity of radiation, and a human dose will die. The chromosome of the bacterium is shattered into hundreds of fragments after receiving millions of rad a rays, but it can be recovered in one day. Studying its DNA repair mechanism is very meaningful for the development of environmental bio-treatment in radiation-contaminated areas. The development and utilization of the extreme characteristics of the extreme bacteria can break through some limitations in the current biotechnology field, and establish new technical means to revolutionize the biotechnology capabilities in the fields of environment, energy, agriculture, health and light chemicals. Extreme enzymes from extreme microorganisms, which can function in extreme environments, will greatly expand the application space of enzymes, and are the basis for establishing high-efficiency, low-cost biotechnology processing processes, such as TagDNA polymerase and detergent in PCR technology. Alkaline enzymes and the like are representative. The research and application of extreme microorganisms will be an important way to obtain the advantages of modern biotechnology, and its application potential in new enzymes, new drug development and environmental remediation is enormous.
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